小结
希腊化世界与丝绸之路的开启有着千丝万缕的联系。早在波斯帝国时期，近东与中亚和印度西北部就已经有了一定程度的商贸与文化联系。亚历山大东征后，中亚和印度西北部都在一定程度上卷入了希腊化的进程之中。一方面，希腊文化与业已存在的波斯文化、印度文化以及后来随着游牧民族入侵而来的游牧文化一起，不断整合，逐渐形成了中亚与西北印度地区“一元主导，多元并存，融合发展”的文化特点；另一方面，如同雨后春笋般出现的希腊化城市加强了从东地中海到印度河流域商道的联系，基本奠定了日后这一地区丝绸之路的雏形，这就为贵霜帝国多元文化的出现以及丝绸之路走向的最终确立做了必要的准备。
托勒密王国濒临地中海和红海，有海上贸易之利，塞琉古王国一度占据了地中海东岸经美索不达米亚、伊朗至中亚的广大地区，有陆路贸易之便。它们都对海上和陆上丝绸之路的最终贯通做了重要的贡献。托勒密王国统治埃及及部分地中海东岸地区三个世纪之久。由于地理位置的优越、对资源的需求等原因，托勒密王国在红海沿岸建设港口，探索红海商路，发展红海、地中海地区的贸易，并实现了与印度第一次直接通航，为罗马帝国时期海上丝绸之路西段的贯通奠定了基础。塞琉古王国建立之初，疆域包括西亚、中亚的广大领土，葱岭以西地区的东西贸易主干道几乎都在它的控制之下，为东西贸易提供了政治保障，为东西方交往创造了空前的机遇。帕提亚、巴克特里亚独立后，塞琉古王国对两河流域以西、叙利亚地区的统治和经营，保证了丝绸之路西段的延续。事实上，后来罗马帝国时期陆上丝绸之路的拓展可以看作是帕提亚和塞琉古王国经营丝绸之路的结果。
（执笔：第一节 庞霄骁 第二节 高克冰）
[1]杨巨平：《远东希腊化文明的文化遗产及其历史定位》,《历史研究》2016年第5期。
[2]原文已散佚，残片见：F.Jaccoby,Fragmente der Griechischen HistorikerI-II,No.709,Wei-dmann,Berlin,1923.以下缩写为 FGrH。相关记载见 Herodotus,The Histories,4.42; 4.44,with an English translation by A.D.Godley,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1921;[古希腊]希罗多德：《历史》，王以铸译，商务印书馆1997年版，第270—272页。
[3]FGrH,709.
[4]FGrH,294.
[5]Herodotus,The Histories,4.42; 4.44 with an English translation by A.D.Godley,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1921.
[6]Herodotus,The HIstories,4.13-35,with an English translation by A.D.Godley,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1921.
[7]Klauskarttunen,India in early Greek literature,Helsinki: Finnish Oriental Society,1989,pp.11-15.
[8]S.F.Starr,“The Persian Royal Road in Turkey”,Yearbook of the American Philosophi cal Socie-ty,NewYork,1962（Philadelphia 1963）,pp.629-632.
[9]Josef Wiesehofer,Ancient Persia: From550B.C.to650A.D.,translated by Azizeh Azodi,Lon-don: I.B.Tauris Publishers,1996,pp.76-77.
[10]天青石主要出产于今阿富汗的巴达赫尚地区。见Frank L.Holt,Alexander the Great and Bac-tria,Leiden: E.J.Brill,1989,p.28。
[11]Herodotus,The Histories,7.65,with an English translation by A.D.Godley,Cambridge,Mass：Harvard University Press,1922.
[12]参见杨巨平《希腊化还是印度化“Yavanas”考》,《历史研究》2011年第6期。
[13][英]H.裕尔、[法]H.考迪埃修订：《东域纪程录丛》，张绪山译，云南人民出版社2002年版，第21页；张星烺编注：《中西交通史料汇编》（第一册），朱杰勤校订，中华书局1977年版，第17页；戈岱司主编：《希腊拉丁作家远东文献辑录》，耿昇译，中华书局2001年版，第1页；相关研究亦可见：杨巨平：《亚历山大东征与丝绸之路开通》,《历史研究》2007年第4期。
[14]Herodotus,The Histories,6.9,with an English translation by A.D.Godley,Cambridge,Mass：Harvard University Press,1922.
[15]Quintus Curtius Rufus,The History of Alexander,7.7.28 translated by John Yardley; with an in-troduction and notes by Waldemar Heckel,Penguin Books,1999; Plutarch,Moralia,557B,with an English translation by Frank Cole Babbitt,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1994; Strabo，Geograghy,9.11.4.with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard U-niversity Press,1988.
[16]蛮荒的说法很可能来自奥内斯克利图斯（Onesicritus）。其作品已散失，斯特拉波《地理志》中曾引用过他关于“巴克特里亚把老人或病人活活扔给狗吃”的记载，但他也说，亚历山大改变了这种习俗。见：Strabo,Geograghy11.11.3,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones，Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1988。
[17]这些城市科恩都有详细的考证，见G.Cohen,M.,The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India,Berkeley: University of California Press,2013。
[18]Strabo,Geograghy11.11.4,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988.Arrian,Anabasis of Alexander,4.1.3-4; 5.19.4,with an Eng-lish Translation by E.I.Robson,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1967; Claudius Ptolemy，The Geography,6.12,translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson,with an introduction by Prof.Joseph Fischer,New York: Dover Publication,Inc.,1991（p.143）.
[19]（东汉）班固：《汉书》卷九十六《西域传》，中华书局1962年版，第3889页。
[20]Igor V.P'yankov,“Cyropolis”,Encyclopaedia Iranica,Http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cyropolis-latin-form-of-gr.
[21]Arrian.Anabasis of Alexander,4.28.1-4,5.2.5,with an English translation by P.A.Brunt，Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1996.
[22]（西汉）司马迁：《史记》卷一百二十三《大宛列传》，中华书局1959年版，第3160—3166页。
[23]Arrian,Anabasis of Alexander,5.18-20,7.6.1,7.12.1,with an English Translation by E.I.Robson,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1967.
[24]W.W.Tarn,Hellenistic Civilization,London: Edward Arnold Ltd.,1959,pp.241-243.
[25]Strabo,Geography,11.7.3,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988.
[26]W.W.,Tarn,Hellenistic Civilization,London:Edward Arnold Ltd.,1959,pp.243-245.
[27]Strabo,Geograghy,11.10.2,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cam-bridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1988; Pliny,Nature History,6.46-47 with an English trans-lation by H.Rackham,Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1999；参见G.M.Cohen,The Hel-lenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India,Berkeley: University of California Press,2013,pp.245-250。
[28]G.M.Cohen,The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India,Berkeley: University of California Press,2013,pp.252-255.
[29]有关“阿姆河的亚历山大里亚”（Alexandria Oxiana）的记述见：Claudius Ptolemy,The Ge-ography,6.12,translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson,with an introduction by Prof,Joseph Fischer,New York: Dover Publication,Inc.,1991。根据托勒密的划分，这座城市应该在索格底亚那境内，从其名称看，应在阿姆河畔。此城仅这一处提及，故学界争议较大。除了阿伊·哈努姆之外，还有铁尔梅兹的坎培尔·特佩（Kampyr Tepe）遗址和阿伊·哈努姆附近阿姆河对岸的塔赫特—伊·桑金（Takht-I Sangin）也是可选之地。
[30]关于阿伊·哈努姆城市布局的最详细记录当属相关系列考古报告：P.Bernard,“Cam-pagnes 1965,1966,1967,1968”,In Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum,Pairs,1973以及C.Rapin,La Tresore-rie du Palais Hellenistique d' Ai khanoum.L'apogee et La Chute du Royaumegrec de Bactriane,Fouilles d' Ai Khanoum,Vol.VIII,Paris,1992。有关该城的介绍可见P.Bernard,“Ai Khanoum on the Oxus: A Hellenistic City in Central Asia”,Proceedings of the British Academy,Vol.53,1967,pp.71-95,Plates I-XX; Bernard,P.,“An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia”,Scientific American,Vol.246,Jan，1982,pp.148-159;P.Leriche,“Les Remparts et Les Monument Associés”,Fouilles d' Ai Khanoum，Vol.V,Pairs,1973; G.M.Cohen,The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India,Berkeley: University of California Press,2013,pp.225-244; Rachel R.Mairs，Ethnic Identity in the Hellenistic Far East,Faculty of Classics University of Cambridge April 2006;J.Har-matta,ed.,The History of Civilizations of Central Asia II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civi-lizations,Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994,pp.107-113；杨巨平《阿伊·哈努姆遗址与“希腊化”时期东西方诸文明的互动》,《西域研究》2007年第1期。
[31]有关该格言的英译见：P.Bernard,“An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia”,Scientific Ameri-can,Vol.246,1982,Jan,pp.149-159；中译见杨巨平《阿伊·哈努姆遗址与希腊化时期东西方诸文明的互动》,《西域研究》2007年第1期。
[32]P.Bernard,“Ai Khanoum on the Oxus: A Hellenistic City in Central Asia”,Proceedings of the British Academy,Vol.53,1967,p.82.
[33]P.Bernard,“An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia”,Scientific American,Vol.246,1982,Jan，p.159.
[34]P.Bernard,“Ai Khanoum On the Oxus: A Hellenisitc City in Central Asia”,Proceedings of the British Academy,Vol.53,1967,pp.77-78.
[35]P.Bernard,“An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia”,Scientific American,Vol.246,1982,Jan，pp.158-159；杨巨平：《阿伊·哈努姆遗址与“希腊化”时期东西方诸文明的互动》,《西域研究》2007年第1期。
[36]Pliny,Nature History,6.21.58,with an English translation by H.Rackham,Cambridge,Mass：Harvard University Press,1999.
[37]N.A.Nikam and R.Mckeon,The Edicts of Asoka,Chicago: the Univercity of Chicago press,1959，p.29.
[38]Ven.S.Dhammika,The Edicts of King Ashoka,Kandy Sri Lanka: Budhist publication Society，1993,“the fourteen rock Edicts”: No.2,5,13.
[39]Athenaeus,Deipnosophistae,14.652F,with an English translation by Charles Burton Gulick，Cambridge,Mass: Harvard University Press,1942.
[40]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.105-106.
[41]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.115-114.
[42]杨巨平：《希腊化还是印度化——“Yavanas”考》,《历史研究》2011年第6期。
[43]Rachel RuthMairs,“Greek Settler Communities in Central and South Asia,323 BC-AD 10”，in Girish Daswani and Ato Quayson（eds.）,A Companion to Diaspora and Transnationalism,Oxford：Blackwell,2013,pp.43-63.
[44]巴克特里亚于何时独立，学界至今依然有一定的争议。目前主要流行“公元前256年说”、“公元前250年说”、“公元前241—240年说”和“公元前246年说”等诸多观点。其中，尤以塔恩的“公元前246年说”和纳拉因的“公元前256年说”较为学者所认同。详见H.Sidky，The Greek Kingdom of Bactria: from Alexander to Eucratides the Great,New York,Oxford: University Press of America,2000,pp.140-152。
[45]Polybius,The Histories,11.34.2,with an English translation by W.R.Paton,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1993；亦见W.W.Tarn,The Greeks in Bactria and India,Cambridge：The Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.74-75。
[46]Strabo,Geography,11.11.1,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988.
[47]杨巨平：《希腊化还是印度化——“Yavanas”考》,《历史研究》2011年第6期。
[48]Lionel Casson,PeriplusMaris Erythraei: Text with Introduction,Translation,and Commentary，“Text and Translation”47.New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1989.
[49]Sacarauli一般被比定为斯基泰人。见Harry Falk,Kushan Histories: Literary Sources and Se-lected Papers from a Symposium at Berlin,December5to7,2013,Bremen: Hempen Verlag,2015，pp.59-60。
[50]（东汉）班固：《汉书》卷六十一《张骞李广利传》，中华书局1962年版，第2692页。
[51]R.C.Senior,Indo-Scythian Coins and History,Vol.1,Lancaster,PA: Classi cal Numismatic Group,2001,p.13,map 2.
[52]Strabo,Geography,11.9.2,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988，以及Justin,Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus，42.2.2-5,translated by J.C.Yardley,Atlanta: Scholars Press,1994。
[53]关于印度—斯基泰人的来源和迁徙路线，钱币学家西尼尔另有不同看法，详见R.C.Senior，Indo-Scythian Coins and History,Vol.1,Lancaster,PA: Classi cal Numismatic Group,2001,pp.7-20。
[54]Robert H.McDowell,“The Indo-Parthian Frontier”,The American Histori cal Review,Vol.44，No.4,Jul.,1939,pp.781-801.
[55]A.K.Narain,The Indo-Greeks,Oxford: Clarendon Press,1957,p.15.
[56]具体分析参见 F.L.Holt,Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medaillons，Berkeley,2003；参见杨巨平《希腊式钱币的变迁与古代东西方文化交融》,《北京师范大学学报》2007年第6期。
[57]此类钱币可参见：I.Carradice & M.Prince,Coinage in the GreekWorld,London: B.A.Seaby Ltd.,1988,p.116；参见杨巨平《希腊式钱币的变迁与古代东西方文化交融》,《北京师范大学学报》2007年第6期。
[58]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995,pp.90-91.
[59]杨巨平：《希腊化还是印度化——“Yavanas”考》,《历史研究》2011年第6期。
[60]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995,pp.94-95.
[61]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995,pp.96-97.
[62]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995,pp.166-167.
[63]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995,pp.94-95.
[64]O.Bopearachchi,Pre-Kushana Coins in Pakistan,Karachi: IRM Associates Ltd.,1995，pp.170-171.
[65]Lowell K.Handy,Among the Host of Heaven: the Syro-Palestinian Pantheon as Bureaucracy,Wi-nona Lake Indiana Eisenbrauns,1994,p.112.
[66]李铁匠：《贝希斯敦铭文介绍》,《江西大学学报》1987年第3期。
[67]Justinus,Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus,translated by J.C.Yardley,Atlan-ta: Scholars Press,1994,p.256.
[68]P.Leriche,“Bactria,Land of Thousand Cities”,in Joe Cribb and Georgina Herrmann,eds.，After Alexander Central Asia before Islam,Oxord University Press,2007,pp.186-187.
[69]（西汉）司马迁：《史记》卷一百二十三《大宛列传》，中华书局1959年版，第3164页。
[70]参见Rachel RuthMairs,Ethnic Identity in the Hellenistic Far East,Faculty of Classics Universi-ty of Cambridge April,2006,pp.120-122。
[71]Willy Clarysse and Dorothy J.Thompson,“Two Greek Texts on Skin from Hellenistic Bactria”，Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik,Bd.159,2007,pp.273-279.
[72]参见J.Harmatta ed.,The History of Civilizations of Central Asia II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations,Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994,pp.122-124。
[73]H.Serig,Tresors Du Levant Anciens Et Nouveaux,Paris,1973; O.Morkholm,“A Greek Coin Hoad from Susiana”,Acta Archaeologica,Vol.36,Copenhagen,1965,p.124; J.Harmatta,eds.The History of Civilizations of Central AsiaII,“The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations”,Par-is: UNESCO Publishing,1994,pp.325-326.
[74]Victor Sarianidi,The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Af-ghanistan,New York: Abrams;Leningrad: Aurora Art Publishers,1985,pp.235,254-256.
[75]Victor Sarianidi,The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Af-ghanistan,New York: Abrams;Leningrad: Aurora Art Publishers,1985,pp.241-242.
[76]Victor Sarianidi,The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Af-ghanistan,New York: Abrams;Leningrad: Aurora Art Publishers,1985,pp.243,250,258-259.
[77]（东汉）班固：《汉书·西域传》，第3896页。
[78]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.222-225.
[79]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.133-135,Plate 144-145.
[80]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.164-166.
[81]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,1951,pp.327-328.
[82]J.Harmatta,ed.,The History of Civilizations of Central AsiaII,“The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations”,Paris: UNESCO Publishing,1994,pp.206-208.
[83]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,pp.126-130.
[84]JohnMarshall,Taxila,Vol.1,Cambridge University Press,p.128.
[85]Strabo,Geography,15.1.4,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988.
[86]Lionel Casson,PeriplusMaris Erythraei: Text with Introduction,Translation,and Commentary，“Text and Translation”6,7,8,10,37,39,49,56,64,New Jersey: Princeton University Press，1989.参见杨巨平《两汉中印关系考——兼论丝绸之路南道的开通》,《西域研究》2013年第4期。
[87]Walter Scheidel,Ian Morris and Richard Saller,eds,The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2007,p.435.
[88]Donald W.Prakken,“A Ptolemaic Graffito in New York”,TAPA76,1945,pp.108-115.
[89]沈福伟：《丝绸之路——中国与非洲文化交流研究》，新疆人民出版社2010年版，第31页；S.E.Sidebotham,“Routes Through the Eastern Desert of Egypt”,Expedition,37,1995,pp.39-50。
[90]杨巨平：《亚历山大东征与丝绸之路开通》,《历史研究》2007年第4期。
[91]沈福伟：《丝绸之路——中国与非洲文化交流研究》，新疆人民出版社2010年版，第31页。
[92]Pliny,Natural History,6.21.58,with an English translation by H.Rackham,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1999.
[93]张绪山：《罗马帝国沿海路向东方的探索》,《史学月刊》2001年第1期。
[94]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,p.397.
[95]Kostas Buraselis,Mary Stefanou and Dorothy.J.Thompson,eds.,The Ptolemies,The Sea and The Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power,Cambridge University Press,2013,p.4.
[96]Kostas Buraselis,Mary Stefanou and Dorothy.J.Thompson,eds.,The Ptolemies,The Sea and The Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power,Cambridge University Press,2013, p.14.
[97]Lionel Casson,The AncientMariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean In Ancient Times,New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1991,p.157.
[98]Michael Grant,From Alexander to Cleopatra: The Hellenistic World,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1982,p.40.
[99]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,p.381.
[100]Raoul Mclaughlin,Rome and the Distant East,Auckland: MPG Books Group Ltd.,2010,p.24.
[101]J.Innes Miller,The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire:29B.C.to A.D.641,Oxford: Clarenden Press,1969,p.258.
[102]Lionel Casson,PeriplusMaris Erythraei: Text with Introduction,Translation,and Commentary，“Text and Translation”26,New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1989.
[103]Pirre Grimal,Hellenism and the Rise of Rome,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1970,p.242.
[104]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,p.389.
[105]Raoul Mclaughlin,Rome and the Distant East,Auckland: MPG Books Group Ltd.,2010,p.24.
[106]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,p.187.
[107]Michael Grant,From Alexander to Cleopatra: The Hellenistic World,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson,1982,p.44.
[108]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,p.411.
[109]Strabo,Geography,17.1.13,with an English translation by Horace Leonard Jones,Cambridge，Mass: Harvard University Press,1988.
[110]George F.Hourani,“Did Roman Commercial Competition Ruin South Arabia?”,Journal of Near Eastern Studies,Vol.11,No.4,Oct.,1952,p.291.
[111]M.Rostovtzeff,The Social and Ecnomic History of the Hellenistic World,Oxford University Press，1941,pp.385-386.
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